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Tcl Introduction

A Simplest Example | Basic | Contorl | Procedure | Object

Tcl (Tool Command Language) is created by Dr. John Ousterhout in 1989. Tcl is designed as a small language that is easy to be embedded and extended. It is a scripting language with simple and elegant syntax rules. Tcl can easily glue components together. And it is portable on main platforms such as Windows, Unix, and Macintosh. Programmers are more productive by using the Tcl and their extensions for rapid software development.

Many enterprises are beginning to realize the power of Tcl and use Tcl for their applications. For example, AOL and CNET had applied Tcl for their online services; Cisco and Nortal applied Tcl on their network software testing and management; NationalBank used Tcl for its financial system management. Lucnet Technology used Tcl for EDA applications.

Questions:

What language is used for the implementation of Alfred in Pixar?

A Simplest Example

pack [button .b -text "Hello" -command {puts "Hello World!"}]

This simplest Tk example shows a Hello button on the Main window. When you click the button the console window will display the string "Hello World!" on the console. button command creates an instance .b button called .hello. -text string shows the button title. -command string is the command responsed to the button's action. pack command layouts the button on the window.

This example demonstrates geometry management, font management, and callbacks.

Basic

Tcl is a typeless scripting language. Its basic syntax and structure looks like.

    command argument1 argument2 ...

where command is a basic function or a defined procedure in the Tcl interpreter. The arguments are separeted by the white space. A newline or semicolon is the the termination of a command. Each command will return a string or a null value. The arguments are string value. The basic operating mechanisms of Tcl are grouping, substitution, and dispatch.

Grouping

square brackets [] represent the nested command. The command is executed and return a value.
```
[clock seconds]
```
curly braces {} group words into a single argument without interpreting the words in the braces.
```
set words {the time is [clock seconds]}
```
double quotation "" marks group words as a single argument and interprets command and substitution inside.
```
set words "the time is [clock seconds]"
```
Substitution

$variable dollar sign $ evals variable and get its value return.
```
set variable "variable value"
```
\ backslash is used to quote special character such as \, ", and $. \n returens the newline. \t returns a tab. \{, \}, \$ are quote for these special character.
```
puts "The \{first\} line.\nthis is the second line."
```
#comment is a comment in the beginning of a line or after the semicolon.
```
# comment here please
```
Dispatch

After grouping and substitution, Tcl command calls a build-in function or procedure to execute this command. This is the procedure of dispatch. In the Following paragraphs we are going to describe some building commands in the Tcl.

Control

if boolean body_true else body_false
it is a conditional command. If the value of boolean_expression is true then execute body_true, otherwise execute body_false.
```
    if {$variable < 0} { 
        set retval -1
    } elseif ($variable > 0) { 
        set retval +1 
    } else { 
        set retval 0 
    }
```
while boolean body
it evaluates the boolean if it is true execute the body and repeates the procedure, otherwise the while command terminate.
```
    set count 7 
    while {$count > 0} { 
        puts 2*$count; incr count -1 
    }
```
for initial boolean increment body
its initial_setting initializes the loop. If the second argument boolean_expression returns non zero value the loop continues. The third argument increment is executed {after} the execution of the body_for
```
    for {set count 0 } {$count < 7} {incr count 1} {
        puts 2*$count
    }
```
braek, continue, and return
break command exits the loop. continue command executes next iteration. return command returns from a procedure

Procedure

proc name arguments body

it provides a method to define a sequence of commands. The variables in the procedure have a local scope. The first argument is the procedure name. The arguments is the list of argument name. The body is the command sequence of the procedure. The return command can be used inside the body to returen a value.
```
    proc distance {a, b, x, y} {
        return sqrt(($x-$a)*($x-$a) + ($y-$b)*($y-$b)
    }
```
global variable ...
global scope is the top level scope. After a variable is defined by global it is visible in the global scope. It is not necessary to define a global variable in the global scope. You need to declare the global variable in every procs you use it. Its replacment is ::variable that puts prefix :: on a global variable.
```
    global variable1 variable2
```
Namespace
namespaces speccificate new scopes for global variables and procedures. By using namespaces programmer can organize the large Tcl programs. Neatware strongly suggests you use the namespaces for your Tcl project although it may be little bit complexity to use with the callback commands. Namespaces have the following syntax:
```
    namespace eval name {
        variable var initvalue
        namespace export proc1 proc2 ...
    }
    proc name::proc1 {args} {
        variable var
        # commands ...
    }
    ...
    proc name::procn {args} {
        # commands ...
  }
```
name is the namespace name that is declared by namespace eval. variable declares the var variable and its init value. namespace export declares the procedure names that will be available to call. The proc statements define the procedures. You may call a procedure by name::procn args. You need to declare a variable var when you want to use it in a procedure.

The namespaces may be nested. You may save to write namespace header in each calls with namespace import command. The callback commands such as after are evaluated later. Their default scopes are global. By using the namespace code prefix in front of the callback commands you can execute the callback command later in current scope. Namespace has the same stack level like procedure. You may access all the variables with uplevel or upvar.

Object

String
String is a primitive object of Snaml. It consists of any characters. Some characters may have special meaning for a string in the context.
- String Construction
  (i) 'append v s1 s2 ...' command concatenates s1 s2 ... onto the variable v; (ii) the 'join LIST s' command joins the elements of LIST together and distinguishes them with a string s. The default string s is a space.
```
  set v "one "  ;# v is "one two three"
  append v "two " "threr "     

  set l {a {b c} d}  ;# l is "a::{b c}::d" 
  join l "::"
```
- String Access
  (i) 'string length STRING' command returns the number of characters of the STRING; (ii) 'string range STRING i j' command returns the substring of the STRING from i to j; (iii) to get an element, 'string index STRING i' returns the character in the position i. The starting position of a string is 0; (iv) to find the occurrence of a string, 'string first STRING1 STRING2' command returns the first occurrence of STRING1 in the STRING2; (v) the 'string last STRING1 STRING2' command finds the last occurrence.
```
    set s "abc defe"
    set n [string length $s] ;# n is 8
    set r [string range $s 1 5] ;# r is "bc de"
    set i [string index $s 0] ;# i is "a"
    set f [string first "ef" $s] ;# f is 5
    set t [string last "e" $s] ;# t is 7
```
- String Operation
  (i) 'string compare STRING1 STRING2' compares two strings. It returens 0 if they are equal, or -1 if STRING1 is less than the STRING2, otherwise +1; (ii) to find a string in a pattern, 'string match PATTERN STRING' command completes pattern matching. PATTERN may be the combination of characters and the special matching characters where * for any characters, ? for any single character, and [xyz] for one of a character in the [ ]. If STRING matches the PATTERN it returns 1, otherwise returns 0. (iii) 'string tolower STRING' and 'string toupper STRING' will convert the STRING to lower and upper case respectively. Examples of string compare are:
```
    set s "abc "    
    set r [string compare $s "abc"]
    if {$r == 0} {
      _quote "s == 'abc'"
    } elseif {$r == -1} {
      _quote "s < 'abc'"
    } else {
      _quote "s > 'abc'"
    } 
```
  string match example:
```
    if {[string match {a?[xyz]} $s] == 0} {
      _quote "matched"
    }
```
  string conversion example:
```
  set l [string tolower $s]
    set u [string toupper $s] 
```
- String Format
  'format STRING v₁ v₂ ...' command is similar to printf() function of C. It returns a formatting string. STRING is the format specification. v₁, v₂ ... are corresponding values.)
```
  set s "32"
    set d [format "%2d" $s]
```
List
List is a useful type to represent document structure. It is a general expression of tree structure.
- List Construction
  (i) 'list a1 a2 ...' command constructs a list from its arguments a1, a2, ... . The curly brace { } also represents a list; (ii) 'lappend LIST a1 a2 ...' command appends arguments a1, a2, ... to the the end of the LIST as elements; (iii) to merger lists, 'concat LIST1 LIST2 ...' joins the elements in LIST1, LIST2, ... together to form a new list; finally, (iv) 'split STRING c' command returns a list that splits the STRING with characters c.
```
    set lx [list a b c {d e}]
    set ly [lappend $l {g h}]
    set lxy [concat $lx $ly] 
    set s "a, b, c"
    set l [split $s ","]
```
- List Access
  (i) 'llength LIST' returns the number of elements in the LIST; (ii) to get a sub-list, 'lrange LIST i j' command returns elements of LIST from i to j; finally, (iii) 'lindex LIST i' returns the ith element of the LIST.
```
    set l {a b {c d}}
    set n [llength $l]    ;# n is 3
    set e [lrange $l 0 1] ;# e is {a b}
    set i [lindex $l 2]   ;# i is {c d}
```
- List Operation
  'lsearch option LIST v' returns the index of LIST that matches the value v in one of an option or return -1 if no value is found. -glob, -exact, and -regexp are possible option values. The default option value is -glob.
  
  (i) to add a new element into a list, 'linsert LIST i a1 a2 ...' command inserts elements a1, a2, ... before the index i of the list LIST. It returns the new list; (ii) to update elements, 'lreplace LIST i j a1 a2 ...' command replaces elements from i to j in LIST by elements a1, a2, ... and returns the new list; (iii) 'lsort option LIST' sorts elements in LIST according to the options value (-ascii, -integer, -real, -dictionary, -increasing, -decreasing, -command, -index i). The default options are '-ascii -increasing'. It returns the new list.
```
  set l {a b {c d}}
    set n [lsearch -exact "b"] ;# n is 1
    set v [linsert $l 1 "f"] ;# v is {a f b {c d}}
    set u [lreplace $l 0 0 "g"] ;# u is {g f b {c d}}
    set s [lsort -increasing $l] ;# s is {b {c d} f g} 
```
Array
In Tcl an array is same as the array of Tcl. It is more like a map rather than traditional array in C. It is a collection of key/value pairs. The key is the index and the value is the element of an array. An element of array 'a' with index 'key' is represented as a(key). Its value is $a(key). An array is implemented as a hash table.
- Array Construction
  'array names ARRAY [PATTERN]' command returns the list of ARRAY keys that match the PATTERN. If no PATTERN item it returns the list of all the keys of the ARRAY.
```
  set a(x) "abc"
    set a(y) "def"
    set l [array names a]           ;# l is {x y}
```
- Array Access
  (i) 'array exists ARRAY' returns 1 if ARRAY is an array variable, otherwise it returns 0; (ii) to get the number of elements of ARRAY, 'array size ARRAY' returns this value.
```
  if {[array exists a] == 1} {
      _quote "a is an array"
      set n [array size a]
    } else {
      _quote "a is not an array"
      set n 0
    }
```
- Array Operation
  (i) 'array get ARRAY [PATTERN]' returns a key/value pair list. PATTERN is used for matching keys. Without PATTERN 'array get' command will return all the pairs; (ii) 'array set ARRAY LIST' command sets ARRAY with the LIST in the key/value form.
```
    set a(x) "abc"
    set a(y) "def"
    set l [array get a] ;# l is a list {x abc y def}
    array set b $l ;# b is an array same as a 
```
Regexp
Regular Expression (Regexp) is a powerful tool for text processing. It provides pattern matching for string data. Much of following description of regular expressions is copied verbatim from Henry Spencer's manual entry. Henry Spencer makes a very efficient implementation of the regular expression.

A regular expression is zero or more branches, separated by ``|''. It matches anything that matches one of the branches. A branch is zero or more pieces, concatenated. It matches a match for the first, followed by a match for the second, etc. A piece is an atom possibly followed by ``*'', ``+'', or ``?''. An atom followed by ``*'' matches a sequence of 0 or more matches of the atom. An atom followed by ``+'' matches a sequence of 1 or more matches of the atom. An atom followed by ``?'' matches a match of the atom, or the null string.

An atom is a regular expression in parentheses (matching a match for the regular expression), a range (see below), ``.'' (matching any single character), ``^'' (matching the null string at the beginning of the input string), ``$'' (matching the null string at the end of the input string), a ``\'' followed by a single character (matching that character), or a single character with no other significance (matching that character).

A range is a sequence of characters enclosed in ``[]''. It normally matches any single character from the sequence. If the sequence begins with ``^'', it matches any single character not from the rest of the sequence. If two characters in the sequence are separated by ``-'', this is shorthand for the full list of ASCII characters between them (e.g. ``[0-9]'' matches any decimal digit). To include a literal ``]'' in the sequence, make it the first character (following a possible ``^''). To include a literal ``-'', make it the first or last character.
- regexp
  The regexp command has the syntax, 'regexp [switches] REGEXP STRING [matchvar] [submatchvar ...]'.
  
  It returns 1 if part of or all STRING matches regular expression REGEXP, otherwise it returns 0. The 'matchvar' stores the string that matched entire REGEXP. 'submatchvar' stores the string that matched the leftmost parenthesized subexpression within REGEXP. The optional switches may have value -nocase, -indices, and --. Here, '-nocase' treates upper-case characters in STRING as lower- case. '-indices' specifies that the matchvar contains a pair of numbers that is the position of matched substring in the STRING, otherwise matchvar stores the matched substring. Finally, '--' marks the end of the switches.
```
  regexp  (ab|a)(b*)c  "abc"  match  submatch1 submatch2
```
  where match has the value "abc"; submatch1 has the value "ab"; and submatch2 has the empty value.
- regsub
  
  The regsub command substitutes string according to the matching of regular expression. Its syntax is:
  
  regsub [switches] REGEXP STRING SUBSTITUTE VARIABLE
  
  If there is no match in the STRING for REGEXP, regsub command returns 0, otherwise it returns the number of matches. In addition, regsub replaces the matched REGEXP in the STRING with the SUBSTITUTE. The new replaced string is stored in the VARIABLE. The '&' and '\1' to '\9' characters are special characters during the substitution. The '&' is replaced by the matched string. \1 to \9 are the first and nine matched substrings. The 'switches' may be the value -all, -nocase, or --. '-all', option will replace all the occurrences of the REGEXP pattern. Only first occurrence is replaced in default. '-nocase' means case insensitive when makes a match. '--' is the end of the switches.
```
  regsub -all {%([0-9a-hA-H][0-9a-hA-H]])} \\
    $url {[format %c 0x\1]} newurl
```
  This is an example in CGI program where URL with special characters is encoded with a hexadecimal code %xx. Then the format command will decode the corresponding character with hexadecimal code.
File

File commands are divided into directory and file operations.
- Directory Status
  (i) 'file dirname name' returns a directory name in a path. If name is a relative file name and only contains one path element, then returns ``.'' (or ``:'' on the Macintosh). If name refers to a root directory, then the root directory is returned. (ii) 'file tail name' returns the name after the last directory separator. If name contains no separators then returns name itself (iii) 'file isdirectory name' returns 1 if file name is a directory, otherwise returns 0. (iv) 'file mkdir dir ...' creates one or more directories. For each pathname dir specified, this command will create all non-existing parent directories as well as dir itself. If a directory exists, then no action is taken and no error is returned. Trying to overwrite an existing file with a directory will result in an error. dir arguments are processed in the order specified, halting at the first error, if any.
```
    file dirname ~/src/foo.c  # returns ~/src 
    file tail ~/src/foo.c # returns foo.c
    file mkdir src  # create src directory
```
- File Status
  (i) 'file size name' returns the file size;
  
  (ii) 'file atime name' returns a decimal string giving the time at which file name was last accessed. The time is measured in the standard POSIX fashion as seconds from a fixed starting time (often January 1, 1970). If the file doesn't exist or its access time cannot be queried then an error is generated;
  
  (iii) 'file stat name varname' invokes the stat kernel call on name, and uses the variable given by varname to hold information returned from the kernel call. varname is treated as an array variable, and the following elements of that variable are set: atime, ctime, dev, gid, ino, mode, mtime, nlink, size, type, uid. Each element except type is a decimal string with the value of the corresponding field from the stat return structure; see the manual entry for stat for details on the meanings of the values. The type element gives the type of the file in the same form returned by the command file type. This command returns an empty string;
  
  (iv) 'file attributes name [option]' this subcommand returns a list of the platform specific flags and their values. The 'file attributes name [option value ...] sets one or more of the values. The values are as follows:
  
  On Unix, -group gets or sets the group name for the file. A group id can be given to the command, but it returns a group name. -owner gets or sets the user name of the owner of the file. The command returns the owner name, but the numerical id can be passed when setting the owner. -permissions sets or retrieves the octal code that chmod(1) uses. This command does not support the symbolic attributes for chmod(1) at this time.
  
  On Windows, -archive gives the value or sets or clears the archive attribute of the file. -hidden gives the value or sets or clears the hidden attribute of the file. -longname will expand each path element to its long version. This attribute cannot be set. -readonly gives the value or sets or clears the readonly attribute of the file. -shortname gives a string where every path element is replaced with its short (8.3) version of the name. This attribute cannot be set. -system gives or sets or clears the value of the system attribute of the file.
  
  On Macintosh, -creator gives or sets the Finder creator type of the file. -hidden gives or sets or clears the hidden attribute of the file. -readonly gives or sets or clears the readonly attribute of the file. Note that directories can only be locked if File Sharing is turned on. -type gives or sets the Finder file type for the file.
```
  set s [file atime filename]
    set len [file size filename] 
```
- File Operation
  (i) 'file copy source target' copies source file to the target file or directory; (ii) 'file delete pathname ...' remove files and directories; (iii) 'file rename source target' rename source file name to the target; (iv) 'file join name [name ...]' takes one or more file names and combines them, using the correct path separator for the current platform; (v) 'file split name' returns a list whose elements are the path components in name. The first element of the list will have the same path type as name. All other elements will be relative.
```
  file copy src.sal dest.sal
```
Channel
A channel maybe either a file or a pipeline processes. You may create, open, read/write, and close a channel.
- Channel Creation and Close
  (i) 'open name [access] [permission]' returns a channel id. The 'name' maybe a file name or a pipeline specification. The 'access' maybe fopen like format or POSIX format. The 'permission' is the permission access on the new file. Its default value is 0666 that permits read/write for anyone. (ii) 'close cid' will close the channel cid. (iii) 'flush cid' writes the content of buffer to the channel.
  
  FOPEN Access Format
```
  r   read
  r+  read & write
  w   write; file exists truncate, otherwis create
  w+  write & read; file exists truncate, otherwise create
  a   write; append
  a+  read & write; append 
```
  POSIX Access Format
```
  RDONLY  read
  WRONLY  write
  RDWR    read & write
  APPEND  append
  CREAT   create if file not exists
  TRUNC   truncate 
```
  use with catch example:
```
  if [catch {open filename "w+"} fid] {
    puts "open file error!"
  } else {
    # processing
    close $fid
  } 
```
- Channel Status
  (i) 'seek cid offset [org]' sets the current position to offset from the org. org may have the value start, current, or end. (ii) 'tell cid' returns current position of the channel (iii) 'eof cid' if it is the end of file.
```
  set pos [seek cid 256 start]
```
- Channel Access
  (i) 'read cid [nbytes]' reads nbytes or entire data from cid. It returns the reading data. (ii) 'write cid string' writes a string to the cid.
```
  set data [read cid 256] 
```

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Tcl Introduction

A Simplest Example

Basic

Grouping

Substitution

Dispatch

Control

Procedure

Object